Native American involvement in war was generally one of two kinds: a defensive war against the settlers and government to protect their lands, or an inevitable immersion in the wars of others. The first would prove increasingly futile against the juggernaut of Manifest Destiny and United States expansion, especially as numbers of Native Americans decreased and their tribal strength weakened over time. The second stemmed from a desire to help the side that might be able to benefit them in the future and in the World Wars, an impulse to help their nation against a perceived threat to everyone. Regardless, the courage and strength of Native Americans always showed during wartime.
Pre-Revolutionary War: As European settlement continued to expand at an alarming rate, Native American tribes began to resist the encroachment on their lands that they had previously given away with goodwill. The tribes rarely won these confrontations, which had an added negative of increasing colonial hostility. King Phillip’s War in 1675 was an early example of conflict between the Wampanoag Indians and Plymouth settlers, and this story was repeated throughout the colonies. Native tribes also tended to become embroiled in conflicts between the European nations, such as King William’s War, which pitted the English and French colonies against each other. In this war, the Indians (especially the Iroquois) bore the brunt of the fighting, which consisted largely of inconclusive border raids. In the French and Indian War, the Indian tribes again got caught up in the mix, many allying with the French. An initial loss at Fort Necessity by the British incited Indian raids, but as the tribes decided the French were gaining too pronounced of an advantage, withdrew support. This is significant and representative of the way tribes played the two nations off each other and tried to keep a balance prior to the Revolutionary War.
Revolutionary War: In the Revolutionary War, the Native American tribes once again had the task of deciding whether it best suited their interests to fight for the British, the colonies, or to remain neutral. Although the Second Constitutional Congress tried to deter tribes from allying with the British and urged many to stay neutral by representing the war as solely a conflict between England and the colonies, the tribes full well knew that the battle for independence was also a battle for control over their lands. As the British had awarded a measure of security with the Proclamation of 1763, some tribes felt that their best bet was to support the British cause. Most New England Indians supported the colonies, while the Cherokees early showed their support for the British. In the Ohio Valley, the tribes largely tried to remain neutral in the beginning, but colonial brutality caused them to later ally with the British to fight the battle in the West. After the Revolutionary War, the terms in the Peace of Paris awarded the new United States all the land east of the Mississippi, with no regard for Indian welfare. |
We desire you will hear and receive what we have now told you, and that you will open a good ear and listen to what we are now going to say. This is a family quarrel between us and Old England. You Indians are not concerned in it. We don't wish you to take up the hatchet against the king's troops. We desire you to remain at home, and not join on either side, but keep the hatchet buried deep."
—The Second Continental Congress, Speech to the Six Nations, July 13, 1775 |
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War of 1812: During the time between the Revolutionary War and the War of 1812, the Native American tribes watched American expansion threaten their tribal lands and as the War of 1812 began, their chief concern was the protection of those lands. Therefore, most tribes fought for the British in the war of 1812, hoping that a British victory might restrict or end expansion. Tecumseh, a Shawnee war chief, built a confederation of more than two dozen Indian nations to forge an alliance with the British. These nations and others who supported the British were crucial to many victories, such as those at Detroit and Queenston. Native resistance was greatly diminished after the Battle of Thames, which saw the death of Tecumseh.
World War I: Although most Native Americans were not subject to the draft (due to the fact that most were not citizens), many enlisted and about twelve thousand natives served in the American Expeditionary Force, looking to gain honor in war and to continue the warrior tradition. Some argued for all-Native units; however, the army instead assimilated the Indians into the general army. World War I saw limited use of Native languages as code to rout the Germans. Notably, the Choctaw language was used to communicate troop movements by one regiment. Discrimination of American Indians showed on the home front. While natives generally wanted to help the war effort and bought 25 million dollars’ worth of war bonds, they were excluded from Red Cross efforts and even celebratory parades. In addition, loss of reservation land accelerated. |
Civil War: Native Americans fought on both sides of the Civil War, some choosing to ally with the Confederacy as it showed more of an interest to bargain with the tribes. After the Civil War, some Indian tribes that decided to support the Confederacy were severely punished by the United States government afterwards.
World War II: The readiness of Native Americans to go to war as American involvement in World War II dawned was no less than that during World War I. Eager to prove themselves in war and serve (even for a nation that had continuously disappointed them), over 25 thousand natives served in the army and 50 thousand took up defense jobs in the West. Recognizing the success of the Choctaw code in World War I, the marines made use of Navajo Code talkers in World War II, which would become a celebrated unit. |
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